The diagnosis of acute pulmonary thromboembolism is based on the clinical probability, use of D-dimer (when available) and imaging. The main imaging modalities used in the diagnosis are ventilation-perfusion (V/Q), angiography, and computed tomography (CT). In the last decade several studies have demonstrated that spiral CT has a high sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of acute pulmonary thromboembolism. The evaluation of the pulmonary arteries has further improved with the recent introduction of multidetector spiral CT scanners. Various investigators have suggested that spiral CT pulmonary angiography should replace scintigraphy in the assessment of patients whose symptoms are suggestive of acute PE. This article discusses the role of the various imaging modalities in the diagnosis of acute pulmonary thromboembolism with emphasis on the role of spiral CT.

Keywords: Diagnostic imaging. Pulmonary embolism./diagnosis. Angiography. Lung diseases/radionuclide imaging. Tomography, emission-computed single-photon/methods.

Paragonimiasis is a chronic infection caused by a trematode of the genus Paragonimus, the Paragonimus westermani being the one that most infects man. It is an endemic disease in East Asia, however, it is also seen in America. The authors report two cases of paragonimiasis, in which a patient showed a past history and clinical and radiological characteristics suggestive of this disease, diagnosed by the presence of eggs of P. westermani in the sputum, and another patient, a thoracic post-traumatism empyema whose paragonimiasis diagnosis was a histopathological finding in the pleura after a decortication. This diagnosis was confirmed by the presence of eggs of P. westermani in the sputum.

Keywords: paragonimiasis

Background: In recent decades, the prevalence of asthma has increased. Objectives: To determine the prevalence of asthma symptoms in children and adolescents from 2 to 14 years of age living in Porto Alegre (in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil) and to determine any potential correlations with socioeconomic profile, treatment and smoking in the home. Methods: A transversal study based on interviews of all families seeking medical attention in June of 2000. Results: The prevalence of asthma symptoms was 49.5%. In 66.8% of families, total income was less than four times the minimum wage, and in more than 50% of homes, the parents had had less than five years of schooling. In 98.5%, prophylactic asthma treatment was not used. In the 174 families studied, 38.7% of mothers and 43.7% of fathers were smokers (32.7% overall). Correlations were found between the following variables: exposure to smoking in the home and number of asthma attacks in the last year (p = 0.02; RR = 2.9; CI: 1.1 - 4.5); maternal level of education and number of attacks in the last year (p = 0.03; RR = 2.03; CI: 1.01 - 4.19); close living quarters and number of attacks in the last year among children exposed to second-hand smoke (p = 0.04; RR = 2.7; CI: 1.4 - 5.1); hospitalization and number of attacks in the last year (p = 0.004; RR = 1.46; CI: 1.15 -1.86); hospitalization and close living quarters (p = 0.03; RR = 1.47; CI: 1.15 -1.86). In children below the age of five, there was correlation between maternal smoking and number of attacks in the last year (p = 0.03; RR = 1.79; CI: 1.04 - 3.08). Conclusion: The prevalence of asthma symptoms was high. The community studied has limited socioeconomic resources, and there is therefore a lack of adequate treatment for asthma. Our results demonstrate the need for prioritized, standardized treatment programs that would give healthcare workers access to the appropriate materials and means of evaluation necessary for asthma control.

Keywords: Key words: Asthma. Prevalence. Smoking in the home. Treatment between episodes of asthma.

Objective: To investigate the correlation of HRCT findings with pulmonary metabolic activity in the corresponding regions using 18F-FDG PET/CT and inflammatory markers in patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc)-associated interstitial lung disease (ILD). Methods: This was a cross-sectional study involving 23 adult patients with SSc-associated ILD without other connective tissue diseases. The study also involved 18F-FDG PET/CT, HRCT, determination of serum chemokine levels, clinical data, and pulmonary function testing. Results: In this cohort of patients with long-term disease (disease duration, 11.8 ± 8.7 years), a nonspecific interstitial pneumonia pattern was found in 19 (82.6%). Honeycombing areas had higher median standardized uptake values (1.95; p = 0.85). Serum levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 2, C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 were higher in SSc patients than in controls. Serum levels of CCL2-a marker of fibroblast activity-were correlated with pure ground-glass opacity (GGO) areas on HRCT scans (p = 0.007). 18F-FDG PET/CT showed significant metabolic activity for all HRCT patterns. The correlation between serum CCL2 levels and GGO on HRCT scans suggests a central role of fibroblasts in these areas, adding new information towards the understanding of the mechanisms surrounding cellular and molecular elements and their expression on HRCT scans in patients with SSc-associated ILD. Conclusions: 18F-FDG PET/CT appears to be unable to differentiate the intensity of metabolic activity across HRCT patterns in chronic SSc patients. The association between CCL2 and GGO might be related to fibroblast activity in these areas; however, upregulated CCL2 expression in the lung tissue of SSc patients should be investigated in order to gain a better understanding of this association.

Keywords: Tomography; Lung diseases, interstitial; Scleroderma, systemic; Cytokines.

Studies published by Brochard et al. and by Esteban et al. came to different conclusions about the best technique of weaning from mechanical ventilation. Although the association of synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) with pressure support ventilation (PSV) is frequently used and considered as a physiologic form of weaning, no prospective randomized study compared this technique to synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation or to pressure support ventilation used singly. The authors compared these three weaning methods to determine the one that is associated with the shortest weaning time and the smallest frequency of unfavorable outcome. Methods: The authors analyzed prospectively 72 consecutive patients submitted to mechanical ventilation for at least 24 hours and that had clinical, gasometric, and respiratory criteria for weaning. The patients were randomized in three groups (SIMV, PSV, SIMV+PSV). Stringent criteria were used in the application of each technique to define success or failure of the procedure. Results: The groups (SIMV = 21, PSV = 25 and SIMV+PSV = 26 patients) were similar with respect to age, score APACHE III and diseases. Mean duration of weaning was 1.7 ± 1.2 days with SIMV, 2.5 ± 1.6 days with PSV, and 2.1 ± 1.5 days with SIMV+PSV. Four (19.0 %) patients failled to wean in the SIMV group, nine (36.0%) in PSV and two (7.7%) in SIMV+PSV. Conclusions: This study shows a good performance of SIMV+PSV for weaning patients from mechanical ventilation and unfavorable results with support ventilation that can not be attributed to homogeneity between the groups, nor to the methodologies or equipments used.

Keywords: Weaning. Synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation. Pressure support ventilation.

The authors present a 62-year-old male patient who had pulmonary nocardiosis with poor evolution. He also presented mental confusion, septic shock and a significant leukocytosis. Poor evolution happened even when sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim replaced by ceftriaxone + clindamycin as an antibiotic therapy were used. Diagnostic methods, epidemiology and therapy of this infection are discussed and revised. The authors emphasize the importance of an early diagnosis, isolation in culture, and antibiogram examination of Nocardia ssp samples for therapeutic adapting.

Keywords: Pneumonia. Nocardia.

Congenital lobar emphysema is a disease in which symptoms often begin during the first six months of age. In this report, the authors present the case of a twenty-year-old woman whose symptoms started when she had a spontaneous pneumothorax, an exceptional occurrence. The possible etiologies for that congenital lung malformation and the reasons for the performance of a conservative treatment are discussed.

Keywords: Pulmonary emphysema. Pneumothorax. Abnormalities.

There are few reports in the medical literature about association between bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia (BOOP) and aspergilloma. This report shows the presence of both BOOP and pulmonary aspergilloma in a patient with adult T cell leukemia-lymphoma. It is suggested that these findings represent a random association rather than the expression of a nosologic unity.

Keywords: bronchiolitis obliterans; aspergillosis; T cell lymphoma; pneumonia

Background: Antimicrobial treatment of community-acquired respiratory tract infections (CARTI) is usually empiric and antibiotics are chosen on the basis of surveillance studies. The SENTRY Program was designed to monitor antimicrobial resistance via a worldwide surveillance network of sentinel laboratories. Three sites in Brazil participated in the 1997 and 1998 SENTRY Program. Methods: A total of 344 bacterial isolates, collected from patients with CARTI in 1997 and 1998, were tested against more than 20 antimicrobial agents by the broth microdilution method. Results: Among S. pneumoniae (176 isolates), 71.6% were susceptible to penicillin. High level resistance to penicillin and resistance to cefotaxime was found in 2.3 and 4.0%, respectively. The newer quinolones, levofloxacin, (MIC90 of 2 mg/mL) and gatifloxacin (MIC90 of 0.5 mg/mL) were active against 100% of the isolates tested. Among the other non-b-lactam drugs tested, the rank order of pneumococci activity was (% susceptible): chloramphenicol (97.5%) > clindamycin (94.0%) > azithromycin (90.3%) > clarithromycin (89.4%) > tetracycline (76.4%) > trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (60.2%). The percentage of Haemophilus influenzae (101 isolates) susceptible to amoxicillin was 90.1%, whereas among Moraxella catarrhalis (67 isolates) only 9.0% were susceptible. Clavulanic acid restored the activity of amoxicillin against both H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis. However, H. influenzae showed increased levels of resistance to trimethoprim/sulfametoxazole (55.1% susceptibility), clarithromycin (80.4% susceptibility), and cefaclor (88.2%) susceptibility). All H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis isolates were susceptible to levofloxacin (MIC90, < 0.5 mg/mL for both) and gatifloxacin (MIC90, < 0.06 mg/mL for both) with very low MICs. Conclusion: Results indicate that the rate of S. pneumoniae showing high-level penicillin resistance is still low in Brazil. However, intermediate resistance to penicillin associated with resistance to other classes of antimicrobial agents was relatively high. On the other hand, the new quinolones were highly active against 100% of the respiratory pathogens tested.

Keywords: Respiratory tract infections. Bacterial pneumonia. Microbial drug resistance. Program evaluation. Microbial sensibility tests.

Reexpansion pulmonary edema (RPE) is a rare, but frequently lethal, clinical entity. The precise pathophysiologic abnormalities associated with this disorder are still unknown: decreased surfactant levels and a pro-inflammatory status are putative mechanisms. Early diagnosis is crucial, since prognosis depends on early recognition and prompt treatment. Considering the high mortality rates related to RPE, preventive measures are still the best available strategy for patient handling. This review provides a brief overview of the pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of RPE, with practical recommendations for adequate intervention.

Objective: To evaluate the health-related quality of life of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease receiving long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) at home through oxygen cylinders and compare these results with those obtained six months after the transition from oxygen cylinders to oxygen concentrators. Methods: A total of 45 patients were evaluated. Of those, 24 had chronic hypoxemia and 21 presented no evidence of hypoxemia. The patients with chronic hypoxemia had been regularly receiving LTOT for at least the last six months and were evaluated at baseline, while using cylinders, and six months after the transition from cylinders to concentrators. The non-hypoxemic patients were evaluated at the same time points as were the hypoxemic patients. In order to evaluate quality of life, a version of the Saint George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ), translated and validated for use in Brazil, was administered. Results: At baseline, quality of life, as evaluated using the total score and the symptom and impact domain scores of the SGRQ, was more impaired in the hypoxemic patients than in the non-hypoxemic patients. After six months of using the concentrators, the hypoxemic patients presented a significant improvement in the quality of life, and, at that time, no difference was found between the patients with and without hypoxemia. Conclusion: Our findings show that quality of life is impaired in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic hypoxemia, that their quality of life can be improved through regular use of LTOT, and that the oxygen delivery system has an influence on this improvement.

Keywords: Pulmonary disease, Chronic obstructive; Anoxemia; Oxygen inhalation therapy; Quality of life.

Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes (CFRD) is the principal extra-pulmonary complication of cystic fibrosis, occurring in 15-30% of adult cystic fibrosis patients. The number of cystic fibrosis patients who develop diabetes is increasing in parallel with increases in life expectancy. The aim of this study was to review the physiopathology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of CFRD. A bibliographic search of the Medline and Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature databases was made. Articles were selected from among those published in the last twenty years. Insulin deficiency, caused by reduced β-cell mass, is the main etiologic mechanism, although insulin resistance also plays a role. Presenting features of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, CFRD typically affects individuals of approximately 20 years of age. It can also be accompanied by fasting, non-fasting or intermittent hyperglycemia. Glucose intolerance is associated with worsening of nutritional status, increased morbidity, decreased survival and reduced pulmonary function. Microvascular complications are always present, although macrovascular complications are rarely seen. An oral glucose tolerance test is recommended annually for patients ≥ 10 years of age and for any patients presenting unexplained weight loss or symptoms of diabetes. Patients hospitalized with severe diseases should also be screened. If fasting hyperglycemia persists for more than 48 h, insulin therapy is recommended. Insulin administration remains the treatment of choice for diabetes and fasting hyperglycemia. Calories should not be restricted, and patients with CFRD should be managed by a multidisciplinary team.

Keywords: Cystic fibrosis; Diabetes mellitus.

In its various forms, antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is characterized by a systemic inflammation of the small and medium-sized arteries (especially in the upper and lower respiratory tracts, as well as in the kidneys). The forms of AAV comprise Wegener's granulomatosis (now called granulomatosis with polyangiitis), microscopic polyangiitis, renal AAV, and Churg-Strauss syndrome. In this paper, we discuss the phases of AAV treatment, including the induction phase (with cyclophosphamide or rituximab) and the maintenance phase (with azathioprine, methotrexate, or rituximab). We also discuss how to handle patients who are refractory to cyclophosphamide.

Keywords: Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis; Wegener granulomatosis; Antibodies, antineutrophil cytoplasmic.

A significant percentage of pleural effusions remains without a diagnostic explanation. In such circumstances, the anatomical-pathological result of nonspecific chronic pleuritis should be revised. This is an important issue, not only for the pathologist, but mainly for the pneumologist, who usually makes the clinical-pathological correlation during the routine practice. Although the existence of established criteria is accepted, they are certainly subjective and make the communication by means of a common language difficult, mainly among pathologists. The authors recently studied 311 pleural biopsies with histo-pathological diagnoses of chronic nonspecific pleuritis. All specimens were reviewed and the histo-pathological parameters quantified by stereology. The patients were stratified according to the final diagnosis of their disease, including cases of chronic renal failure, vasculitis, pancreatitis, tuberculosis, cancer, and congestive cardiac failure, in this case considering the pleura as normal. This procedure allowed us to obtain a discriminating model, whose morphological subcriteria classified almost 90% of the nonspecific chronic pleuritis biopsies, according to their final clinical diagnoses, which included true nonspecific chronic pleuritis or tuberculosis pleuritis, paraneoplastic pleuritis, or even normal pleura. By adding to this model the biochemistry or differential cytology of the pleural liquid, its classificatory power reaches 99% of correctness. This study represents the result of the experience acquired over several years in the histo-pathological interpretation of pleural biopsies, based on the correlation between morphology and biochemistry and cytology of the pleural fluid.

Keywords: Biopsy, needle. Pleura/pathology. Pleura/cytology. Pleural effusion.

Objective: The present study attempted to determine whether patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) get the minimum daily amount of physical activity recommended in the guidelines established by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), as well as to characterize the consequences of noncompliance with those guidelines. Methods: This study involved 23 patients (median age: 61 - range, 59-69 years; FEV1: 39% of predicted - range, 34-53%; BMI: 24 kg/m2 - range, 21-27 kg/m2). The following parameters were evaluated: daily physical activity (DynaPort activity monitor); pulmonary function; muscle force; exercise tolerance; quality of life; functional status; and various indices of disease severity (GOLD, BODE and MRC). Results: Based on compliance with the guidelines (minimum of 30 minutes of walking per day), 12 patients were considered "physically active", and 11 were considered "physically inactive". No significant differences were observed between the two groups in terms of age, gender, BMI, muscle force, ventilatory reserve, hyperinflation or quality of life. The inactive group presented more impaired pulmonary function and lower exercise tolerance, as well as lower MRC and BODE scores (p < 0.05). In their daily life, patients in the inactive group also walked for less time and more slowly than did those in the active group (p < 0.05). The MRC and BODE indices were superior to the GOLD index in predicting compliance with the guidelines, both presenting a specificity of 0.83, compared with 0.50 for the GOLD index. The BODE index score increased significantly with each day of inactivity. Conclusion: A large number of COPD patients do not walk more than 30 minutes per day and are therefore not getting the minimum daily amount of physical activity recommended by the ACSM. Inactivity correlates with a higher mortality rate. The MRC and BODE indices proved superior to the GOLD index in predicting whether patients are physically inactive in their daily lives.

Keywords: Pulmonary disease, chronic obstructive; Body mass index; Exercise tolerance; Exercise; Guidelines; Severity of illness index

Background: Hypersensitivity to dust mites, mold and pet dander found in the home is common among patients with asthma. Home environmental control to reduce exposure to allergens is one of various therapeutic measures that can be taken. Objectives: To determine the prevalence of adequate home environmental control among a study population monitored by the Family Health Program and to identify any possible correlation with the exacerbation of asthma among children between the ages of 5 and 14 in the city of Camaragibe, located in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. Method: A transversal study was carried out involving 210 mothers/guardians of children, to whom International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Children questionnaires were administered in order to characterize the exacerbation of asthma attacks. The Environment Assessment Guide of Allergic Patients was used to assess the bedrooms and living rooms in the home. Results: Among the 210 asthmatic children and adolescents evaluated in 2001, adequate home environmental control was observed in 141 (67.1%), and no correlation was observed between the degree of environmental control and fewer (< 3) asthma attacks (p = 0.39). Regarding the rooms where the asthmatic patients sleep, inappropriate furnishings were found in the homes of 93 patients (44.3%), including rag curtains in 84 cases (40.2%). Passive smoking was reported in 77 cases (36.7%). Conclusion: The level of home environmental control was satisfactory in the great majority of the residences, which may have contributed to the fact that no correlation was found between home environmental control and lower frequency of acute asthma attacks among the population studied.

Keywords: Key Words: Asthma. Environment Control. Frequency of Attacks.

Respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease is one of many within the spectrum of smoking-related diffuse infiltrative lung diseases. The clinical and functional characteristics are typically subtle. Herein, we describe two cases of diagnosed through open-lung biopsy, and characterized by insidious evolution of dyspnea, digital clubbing, cystic lesions on computed tomography scans, and hipoxemia upon exertion. We emphasize that, when smokers are evaluated, it is imprtant to consider a diagnosis of respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease in the context of interstitial cystitis, as well as in that of lymphangioleiomyomatosis, eosinophilic granuloma and idiophatic pulmonary fibrosis.

Keywords: Smoking. Interstitial lung diseases. Bronchiolitis.

Objective: To translate, cross-culturally adapt to Brazilian Portuguese, and evaluate the reliability of the Telemedicine Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSQ). Methods: This cross-sectional study involved patients from the Smoking Prevention and Cessation Center (PrevFumo) who participated in at least four of the eight scheduled remote meetings with the PrevFumo psychologist in 2020, 2021, or 2022. Participants were contacted by telephone and asked to answer the 14 questions of the TSQ three times at intervals of 7 or 10 days. Results: We assessed 53 patients (73.3% women). The mean age was 49.7 ± 10.2 years. The mean smoking history was 35.32 ± 24.8 pack-years. Of the 53 patients evaluated, 30.2% had completed high school or had some higher education, and 32.1% were classified as socioeconomic class B2 (A being the highest and E being the lowest). Forty-nine (92.5%) of the patients attended all eight meetings. The TSQ with only three answer options showed high reliability, with approximately 90% agreement after three applications. Patients were satisfied with telemedicine. Conclusions: The TSQ is rapidly applied, is easy to complete, and showed high reliability in our patient sample. Patients declared that they were satisfied with their telemedicine experience.

Keywords: Telemedicine; Patient satisfaction; Surveys and questionnaires; Cross-cultural comparison; Smoking cessation.

Background: Host genetic factors may play a role in the susceptibility to active tuberculosis (TB), and several polymorphisms in different cytokine coding genes have been described and associated with diseases to date. Objectives: To investigate whether polymorphisms within the promoter region of the TNF-á (-238/-308) coding genes are associated to the occurrence of active TB. Methods: SNPs within the TNF-á gene were analyzed by PCR-RFLP among two groups of individuals: patients with TB (n = 234, and patients non TB (n = 113). Results: In this study, the presence of the -238A allele was associated with susceptibility to TB disease occurrence and severity (p = 0,00002; OR = 0,15; IC = 0,06-0,36. On the contrary, the -308A allele was associated with protection to the occurrence of another pulmonary diseases. Conclusions: These results suggest the importance of genetics studies on TB occurrence. Further studies are needed pursuing a better understanding of the human pathogenesis of M. tb.

Keywords: Tuberculosis/genetics. Polymorphism, single nucleotide/genetics. Tumor necrosis factor/genetics. Alleles. Genotype. Lung diseases.