Nosocomial pneumonia, especially ventilator-associated pneumonia, is a common infection in ICUs. The main etiologic factors involve colonizing and opportunistic bacteria from the oral cavity. Oral hygiene measures, including the use of oral antiseptic agents, such as chlorhexidine, have proven useful in reducing its incidence. The objective of this article was to review the literature on the importance of the oral environment in the development of nosocomial pneumonia.

Keywords: Intensive care; Oral hygiene; Cross infection; Pneumonia.

Objective: To evaluate the impact that the implementation of therapeutic guidelines has on the empirical treatment of nosocomial pneumonia. Methods: A clinical trial, using historical controls and involving current ICU patients who had acquired nosocomial pneumonia, was carried out from June of 2002 to June of 2003. All were treated according to therapeutic guidelines developed by the Commission for Nosocomial Infection Control of the institution (group with intervention). As controls, the medical charts of the patients who acquired nosocomial pneumonia between June of 2000 and June of 2001 (group without intervention) were analyzed. Mortality and mean treatment period, as well as the length of hospital and ICU stays, were determined for the patients who acquired nosocomial pneumonia. Results: Mortality associated with pneumonia was lower in the group treated according to the therapeutic guidelines (26 vs. 53.6%; p = 0.00). As for overall mortality, there was no statistically significant difference between the two periods (51 vs. 57.9%; p = 0.37). There was also no difference in the type of microorganisms isolated, treatment period, length of hospital stay or length of ICU stay. Conclusion: The implementation of therapeutic guidelines for the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia acquired in the ICU can be efficacious in decreasing mortality rates.

Keywords: Pneumonia/treatment; Cross infection; Intensive care units; Mortality.

Objective: To implement community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) guidelines at a public hospital in Brazil and to evaluate the impact of these guidelines on health care quality. Methods: A quasi-experimental study, with a before-and-after design, involving adult patients diagnosed with CAP and hospitalized between July of 2007 and October of 2008 in the general ward of the Marília School of Medicine Hospital das Clínicas, located in the city of Marília, Brazil. Results: During the study period, 68 patients were diagnosed with CAP: 48 before the implementation of the guidelines and 20 after their implementation. After the implementation of the guidelines, 85% of the cases were treated in accordance with the guidelines, and there was a significant increase in the use of antibiotic therapy for atypical bacteria in patients with severe CAP (6.3% vs. 75.0%; p < 0.001). Comparing the pre-implementation and post-implementation periods, we observed a trend toward a decrease in the mortality (35.4% vs. 15.0%; p = 0.09) and toward an increase in the recording of SpO2 in the medical charts of the patients (18% vs. 30%; p = 0.42). During the study period, the degree of severity was not recorded on the medical charts of most patients. In addition, the initiation of antibiotic therapy followed a pre-established schedule, regardless of the severity of the infection. Conclusions: This study showed that, although the development and implementation of CAP guidelines promoted the optimization of the treatment, there were no significant differences regarding the assessment of severity, SpO2 recording, or the initiation of antibiotic therapy. Therefore, strategies that are more effective are needed in order to modify variables related to the work of physicians and nurses.

Keywords: Guideline adherence; Pneumonia; Health care quality, access, and evaluation; Community-acquired infections.

Objective: Evaluate the efficacy of the ampicillin-quinolone association in the treatment of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Design: Open, prospective study carried out at the Emergency room of the Hospital Universitário da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora. Patients and methods: From March 1994 to September 1995, the authors studied 23 patients with fever and with at least three of the following symptoms: cough, purulent sputum, pleuritic thoracic pain, leukocytosis or leukopenia, and a chest radiological examination showing infiltrations compatible with pneumonia diagnosis. The patient diagnosis would be severe pneumonia if he met the criteria of severe sepsis as established by the American College of Chest Physicians and by the Society of Critical Care Medicine. Results: 23 patients were studied. One was excluded after having a pulmonary tuberculosis diagnosis; 21 patients were considered cured and one died. Adverse drug effects occurred in one patient who presented a mild pharmacodermia. Conclusion: Ampicillin-quinolone is efficient in the treatment of severe community-acquired pneumonia.

Objective: To determine the prevalence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in an intensive care unit, as well as to identify related factors and characterize patient evolution. Methods: This study evaluated 278 patients on mechanical ventilation for more than 24 hours in a university hospital. Results: Ventilator-associated pneumonia developed in 38.1% of the patients, translating to 35.7 cases/1000 ventilator-days: 45.3% were caused by gram-negative agents (Pseudomonas aeruginosa accounting for 22%); and multidrug resistant organisms were identified in 43.4%. In the ventilator-associated pneumonia group, time on mechanical ventilation, time to mechanical ventilation weaning, hospital stays and intensive care unit stays were all longer (p < 0.001). In addition, atelectasis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, pneumothorax, sinusitis, tracheobronchitis and infection with multidrug resistant organisms were more common in the ventilator-associated pneumonia group (p < 0.05). Mortality rates in the intensive care unit were comparable to those observed in the hospital infirmary. Associations between ventilator-associated pneumonia and various factors are expressed as odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals: acute sinusitis (38.8; 3.4-441); > 10 days on mechanical ventilation (7.7; 4.1-14.2); immunosuppression (4.3; 1.3-14.3); acute respiratory distress syndrome (3.5; 1.4-9.0); atelectasis (3.0; 1.2-7.3); cardiac arrest (0.18; 0.05-0.66); and upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding (0.07; 0.009-0.62). The variables found to be associated with in-hospital death were as follows: chronic renal failure (26.1; 1.9-350.7); previous intensive care unit admission (15.6; 1.6-152.0); simplified acute physiologic score II > 50 (11.9; 3.4-42.0); and age > 55 years (4.4; 1.6-12.3). Conclusion: Ventilator-associated pneumonia increased the time on mechanical ventilation and the number of complications, as well as the length of intensive care unit and hospital stays, but did not affect mortality rates.

Keywords: Bacterial pneumonia; Hospital infection; Intensive care units; Prognosis; Prospective studies; Intensive care medicine

Objective: To compare the performance of Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) with those of the mental Confusion, Urea, Respiratory rate, Blood pressure, and age = 65 years (CURB-65) score and the Pneumonia Severity Index (PSI) as predictors of all-cause in-hospital mortality in patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Methods: This was a cohort study involving hospitalized patients with CAP between April of 2014 and March of 2015. Clinical, laboratory, and radiological data were obtained in the ER, and the scores of CCI, CURB-65, and PSI were calculated. The performance of the models was compared using ROC curves and AUCs (95% CI). Results: Of the 459 patients evaluated, 304 met the eligibility criteria. The all-cause in-hospital mortality rate was 15.5%, and 89 (29.3%) of the patients were admitted to the ICU. The AUC for the CCI was significantly greater than those for CURB-65 and PSI (0.83 vs. 0.73 and 0.75, respectively). Conclusions: In this sample of hospitalized patients with CAP, CCI was a better predictor of all-cause in-hospital mortality than were the PSI and CURB-65.

Keywords: Pneumonia, ROC curve; Predictive value of tests; Severity of illness index.

Objective: To analyze the clinical, etiological, and epidemiological aspects of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in hospitalized individuals. Methods: We prospectively studied 66 patients (> 14 years of age) with CAP admitted to the Hospital Estadual Sumaré, located in the Sumaré microregion of Brazil, between October of 2005 and September of 2007. We collected data related to clinical history, physical examination, pneumonia severity index (PSI) scores, and laboratory tests (blood culture; sputum smear microscopy and culture; serology for Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and Legionella pneumophila; and detection of Legionella sp. and Streptococcus pneumoniae antigens in urine). Results: The mean age of patients was 53 years. Most had a low level of education, and 55.7% presented with at least one comorbidity at the time of hospitalization. The proportion of elderly people vaccinated against influenza was significantly lower among the inpatients than in the general population of the Sumaré microregion (52.6% vs. > 70%). Fever was less common among the elderly patients (p < 0.05). The clinical evolution was associated with the PSI scores but not with age. The etiology was confirmed in 31 cases (50.8%) and was attributed to S. pneumoniae, principally detected by the urinary antigen test, in 21 (34.4%), followed by C. pneumoniae, in 5 (8.2%). The mortality rate was 4.9%, and 80.3% of the patients were classified as cured at discharge. Conclusions: The knowledge of the etiologic profile of CAP at the regional level favors the appropriate choice of empirical treatment, which is particularly relevant in elderly patients and in those with comorbidities. The lack of influenza vaccination in elderly patients is a risk factor for hospitalization due to CAP.

Keywords: Chlamydophila pneumoniae; Community-acquired infections; Pneumonia; Streptococcus pneumoniae; Influenza vaccines.

Objective: To evaluate the agreement between the criteria used for hospitalization of patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and those of the Brazilian Thoracic Association guidelines, and to evaluate the association of that agreement with 30-day mortality. Secondarily, to evaluate the agreement between the treatment given and that recommended in the guidelines with length of hospital stay, microbiological profile, 12-month mortality, complications, ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, and 30-day mortality. Methods: This was a retrospective study involving adult patients hospitalized between 2005 and 2007 at the Federal University of Minas Gerais Hospital das Clínicas, located in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Medical charts and chest X-rays were reviewed. Results: Among the 112 patients included in the study, admission and treatment criteria were in accordance with the guidelines in 82 (73.2%) and 66 (58.9%), respectively. The 30-day and 12-month mortality rates were 12.3% and 19.4%, respectively. The 30-day mortality rate was lower for patients in whom the CRB-65 (mental Confusion, Respiratory rate, Blood pressure, and age ≥ 65 years) score was 1-2 and the antibiotic therapy was in accordance with the guidelines (p = 0.01). Cerebrovascular disease and appropriate antibiotic therapy showed independent associations with 30-day mortality. There was a trend toward an association between guideline-concordant antibiotic therapy and shorter hospital stay. Conclusions: In the population studied, admission and treatment criteria that were in accordance with the guidelines were associated with favorable outcomes in hospitalized patients with CAP. Cerebrovascular disease, as a risk factor, and guideline-concordant antibiotic therapy, as a protective factor, were associated with 30-day mortality.

Keywords: Pneumonia/therapy; Pneumonia/mortality; Hospitalization; Guideline adherence.

Objective: To describe the patient profile, mortality rates, the accuracy of prognostic scores, and mortality-associated factors in patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in a general hospital in Brazil. Methods: This was a cohort study involving patients with a clinical and laboratory diagnosis of CAP and requiring admission to a public hospital in the interior of Brazil between March 2014 and April 2015. We performed multivariate analysis using a Poisson regression model with robust variance to identify factors associated with in-hospital mortality. Results: We included 304 patients. Approximately 70% of the patients were classified as severely ill on the basis of the severity criteria used. The mortality rate was 15.5%, and the ICU admission rate was 29.3%. After multivariate analysis, the factors associated with in-hospital mortality were need for mechanical ventilation (OR: 3.60; 95% CI: 1.85-7.47); a Charlson Comorbidity Index score > 3 (OR: 1.30; 95% CI: 1.18-1.43); and a mental Confusion, Urea, Respiratory rate, Blood pressure, and age > 65 years (CURB-65) score > 2 (OR: 1.46; 95% CI: 1.09-1.98). The mean time from patient arrival at the emergency room to initiation of antibiotic therapy was 10 h. Conclusions: The in-hospital mortality rate of 15.5% and the need for ICU admission in almost one third of the patients reflect the major impact of CAP on patients and the health care system. Individuals with a high burden of comorbidities, a high CURB-65 score, and a need for mechanical ventilation had a worse prognosis. Measures to reduce the time to initiation of antibiotic therapy may result in better outcomes in this group of patients.

Keywords: Community-acquired infections; Pneumonia; Hospital mortality; Risk factors.

Objective: To determine the prevalence of nosocomial pneumonia in autopsies at a public university hospital; to identify the risk factors for nosocomial pneumonia and the potential prognostic factors associated with fatal nosocomial pneumonia and with fatal aspiration pneumonia; and to determine whether anatomopathological findings correlate with nosocomial pneumonia or aspiration pneumonia. Methods: A retrospective study involving 199 autopsied patients, older than 1 year of age, who had been admitted to the São Paulo State University Botucatu School of Medicine Hospital das Clínicas and died of nosocomial pneumonia (underlying or contributing cause), between 1999 and 2006. Demographic, clinical and anatomopathological variables were tested regarding their association with the outcomes (fatal nosocomial pneumonia and fatal aspiration pneumonia). The significant variables were analyzed using multivariate analysis. Results: The mean age was 59 ± 19 years. The prevalence of nosocomial pneumonia in autopsies was 29%, and the disease was the cause of death in 22.6% of the autopsied patients. Fatal nosocomial pneumonia correlated with the following anatomopathological findings: tobacco‑associated structural lesions (OR = 3.23; 95% CI: 1.26-2.95; p = 0.02) and bilateral pneumonia (OR = 3.23; 95% CI: 1.26-8.30; p = 0.01). None of the variables were found to be significantly associated with fatal aspiration pneumonia. Conclusions: In our sample, there was a high prevalence of nosocomial pneumonia, which was responsible for almost 25% of all of the deaths. Smoking-related structural lesions and bilateral pneumonia all favored mortality. These findings corroborate the results of various clinical studies on nosocomial pneumonia.

Keywords: Autopsy; Risk factors; Prognosis; Pneumonia, aspiration; Pneumonia/mortality.

Objective: To determine the prevalence, outcomes, and predictors of multidrug-resistant nosocomial lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) in patients in an ICU. Methods: This was an observational cohort study involving patients with nosocomial LRTI (health care-associated pneumonia, hospital-acquired pneumonia, or ventilator-associated pneumonia). Data were prospectively collected between 2015 and 2019. The multidrug-resistant pathogens (MDRPs) identified in the isolates studied included resistant to extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant and carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at microbiological diagnosis. Results: During the study period, 267 patients in the ICU were diagnosed with LRTI, microbiological confirmation of LRTI having been obtained in 237. Of these, 146 (62%) had at least one MDRP isolate. Patients infected with MDRP were found to have poorer outcomes than patients infected with susceptible strains, such as prolonged mechanical ventilation (18.0 days vs. 12.0 days; p < 0.001), prolonged ICU length of stay (23.0 days vs.16.0 days; p < 0.001), and higher mortality (73% vs. 53%; p < 0.001) when compared with patients infected with susceptible strains. Hospital length of stay = 5 days (OR = 3.20; 95% CI: 1.39-7.39; p = 0.005) and prolonged use vasoactive drugs (OR = 3.15; 95% CI: 1.42-7.01; p = 0.004) were independent predictors of LRTI caused by MDRPs (LRTI-MDRP). The presence of LRTI-MDRP was found to be an independent predictor of death (OR = 2.311; 95% CI: 1.091-4.894; p = 0.028). Conclusions: Prolonged use of vasoactive drugs and prolonged hospital length of stay were independent predictors of LRTI-MDRP in this population of critically ill patients with very poor outcomes.

Keywords: Drug resistance, multiple; Healthcare-associated pneumonia; Pneumonia, ventilator-associated; Cross infection; Intensive care units.

Leptospirosis is an infectious disease characterized by multisystemic involvement. The lung involvement is common, usually mild and frequently neglected. When respiratory manifestations are prominent in a patient with leptospirosis, there is the potential for diagnostic confusion. The authors report a severe case of leptospiral pneumonia, with the objective of highlighting this etiological possibility of community pneumonia, especially when there is suspicion of epidemic features.

Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia is a rare disease of unknown cause characterized by eosinophilic alveolar and interstitial infiltration. The authors describe the case of a 49-year-old caucasian woman, presenting dyspnea on minimum effort, with insidious beginning and progressive course in the last six months. The main findings were serum eosinophilia and in the sputum, chest radiographs showing multifocal infiltrations of irregular distribution in both lungs and a restrictive functional impairment. The patient was submitted to an open lung biopsy, which demonstrated a chronic eosinophilic pneumonia. There was a dramatic clinical, radiological, and functional response after corticosteroid therapy.

Objective: Staphylococcal pneumonia typically presents high rates of morbidity and mortality. It typically occurs in cases of influenza (airborne transmission) or during episodes of bacteremia (blood-borne transmission). Methods: A retrospective and descriptive study was conducted in patients admitted to our hospital between January of 1992 and December of 2003. All of he patients included had been diagnosed with community-acquired pneumonia caused by Staphylococcus aureus. All were older than 14 years of age, and none were intravenous drug users. Results: Community-acquired pneumonia was identified in 332 cases, of which 24 (7.3%) were identified as cases of staphylococcal pneumonia. Age ranged from 14 to 89 years. Fifteen patients were male, and nine were female. Twelve patients met the criteria for severe pneumonia. Chest X-rays showed unilateral consolidation in 14 cases, bilateral consolidation in 10, pleural effusion in 15, rapid radiological progression of pulmonary lesions in 14, cavitation in 6 and pneumothorax in 1. Most of the patients presented comorbidities, of which diabetes mellitus was the most common. Twelve patients presented complications such as empyema and septic shock. Four patients died, translating to a mortality rate of 16.6% in our sample. Conclusions: The clinical presentation of pneumonia caused by S. aureus is similar to that of pneumonia caused by other etiological agents. Radiological findings, epidemiological data and risk factors provide important clues to the diagnosis. These factors are important for clinical suspicion, since S. aureus is not typically addressed in empirical treatment.

Keywords: Staphylococcal pneumonia; Staphylococcal infections; Community-acquired infections.

Objective: To describe the characteristics of patients with influenza A (H1N1)-associated pneumonia treated at two hospitals in the region of Liguria, Italy, as well as to describe their treatment and outcomes. Methods: This was a prospective observational study including all patients older than 16 years of age with a confirmed diagnosis of influenza A (H1N1) who were admitted to Villa Scassi Hospital, in the city of Genoa, Italy, or to the Sestri Levante General Hospital, in the city of Sestri Levante, Italy, between September of 2009 and January of 2010. The primary outcome measure was mortality within 60 days after diagnosis. Secondary outcome measures were the need for mechanical ventilation and the length of hospital stay. Results: Of the 40 patients with a confirmed diagnosis of influenza A (H1N1), 27 presented pneumonia during the study period. The mean age of the 27 patients was 42.8 ± 14.8 years, and the mean length of hospital stay was 11.6 ± 8.2 days. Of the 27 patients, 20 had respiratory failure, 4 underwent invasive mechanical ventilation, and 5 underwent noninvasive ventilation. One patient had comorbidities, developed multiple organ failure, and died. Conclusions: During the influenza A (H1N1) pandemic, the associated mortality rate was lower in Italy than in other countries, and cases reported in the country typically had a milder course than did those reported elsewhere. Nevertheless, 9 of our cases (33%) rapidly evolved to respiratory failure, requiring mechanical ventilation.

Keywords: Pneumonia; Influenza A virus, H1N1 subtype; Respiratory insufficiency.

48 years-old woman, asymptomatic, presented with radiographic findings of patchy airspace consolidation with nodular opacities in the upper right lobe, middle lobe and lingula. The differential diagnoses of neoplasms, sarcoidosis, granulomatous diseases and tuberculosis were considered. Diagnosis of Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia was made by means of videothoracoscopy whereupon treatment with corticosteroids was begun. The patient had a positive evolution with resolution of the radiographic finding.

Keywords: bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia, bronchiolitis obliterans

Pneumocystosis is an opportunistic infection that occurs frequently in immunodeficient patients, mainly in those with the acquired immunological deficiency (AIDS). The authors report the case of a patient with insidious symptoms of fever, cough, and weight loss. Thorax radiography revealed a tumoral image in the right costophrenic angle. Treatment for tuberculosis (therapeutic test) presented no response. An open lung biopsy was performed and the histological examination revealed Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. The patient presented significant clinical and radiological improvement with specific treatment.

Keywords: pneumocystis carinii pneumonia; AIDS-related opportunistic infections

Objective: To determine the frequency of HRCT findings and their distribution in the lung parenchyma of patients with organizing pneumonia. Methods: This was a retrospective review of the HRCT scans of 36 adult patients (26 females and 10 males) with biopsy-proven organizing pneumonia. The patients were between 19 and 82 years of age (mean age, 56.2 years). The HRCT images were evaluated by two independent observers, discordant interpretations being resolved by consensus. Results: The most common HRCT finding was that of ground-glass opacities, which were seen in 88.9% of the cases. The second most common finding was consolidation (in 83.3% of cases), followed by peribronchovascular opacities (in 52.8%), reticulation (in 38.9%), bronchiectasis (in 33.3%), interstitial nodules (in 27.8%), interlobular septal thickening (in 27.8%), perilobular pattern (in 22.2%), the reversed halo sign (in 16.7%), airspace nodules (in 11.1%), and the halo sign (in 8.3%). The lesions were predominantly bilateral, the middle and lower lung fields being the areas most commonly affected. Conclusions: Ground-glass opacities and consolidation were the most common findings, with a predominantly random distribution, although they were more common in the middle and lower thirds of the lungs.

Keywords: Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia; Respiratory tract diseases; Tomography, X-ray computed.

Objective: To determine the prevalence and characteristics of smoking among inpatients at a university hospital, as well as to evaluate their motivation, interest, and need for help in quitting smoking. Methods: A prospective study involving inpatients treated between May of 2008 and April of 2009 on the cardiovascular disease wards at the Antonio Pedro University Hospital, located in the city of Niterói, Brazil. All inpatients were asked to complete a questionnaire designed to collect data regarding demographics, reasons for admission, and smoking status. The smokers also responded to additional questions regarding their smoking habits. The level of nicotine dependence was determined with the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence. Results: Of the 136 inpatients who participated in the study, 68 (50.0%) were male. The mean age was 60.7 years. The prevalence of smoking was 13.2%. Among the 49 patients with coronary disease, 36 (73.5%) were smokers or former smokers. The majority of the patients presented with a high level of nicotine dependence and reported withdrawal symptoms during hospitalization. Although most smokers were motivated to quit smoking, they admitted that they needed help to do so. Conclusions: Because smoking is forbidden in the hospital environment and most inpatients who smoke are highly motivated to quit, health professionals should view the hospitalization period as an opportunity to promote smoking cessation.

Keywords: Smoking; Inpatients; Smoking cessation.